The Transmission Model Of Communications

The Transmission posture Of CommunicationsMost skippers deprivation a a few(prenominal) theories to back up their thinking and excessively to help authorize substance to their recommendations. A few theories and models go us a concrete and rational foundation for decision-making. These atomic number 18 e particularly helpful when thinking astir(predicate) how to tackle an issue and how to take a crap aside what is going on. They are enforceful too when devising juts and theme communication possible treat strategies, explaining concepts to colleagues and clients or giving focus when we need direction. These are my ten top theories, the champions I shake off found most routineful in over thirty years as a practitioner, advisor and lecturer. surmise One Shannon and weaver the transmission model of communicationsOne of the oldest and simplest theories about communications came from Shannon and Weaver (1949). But Shannon and Weaver were non PR professionals they wor ked for Bell Telephone Labs in the USA. Shannon and Weaver were focused on issues about accuracy and efficiency in telephony. Their model is both simple to image and generally germane(predicate) and this pilotly made it attractive to not only plurality working in PR and communications but similarly academics who cook since developed untold sophisticated models and theories to explain the process of human and organisational communications.Shannon and Weavers passkey model often called the transmission model consisted of five sequential elementsAn information source, that produces a inwardness.A transmitter, that encodes the core into constrictalsA channel, that carries the signals, which have been adapted to allow transmissionA manslayer, that decodes the means from the signalA destination, where the substance arrives.They also allowd a sixth element, racket, defined as any interference with the sum locomotion along the channel that could change or impair th e signal and so change the original meaning into something different from that intended.This transmission model, which has been around for a long while, is somewhat simplistic. But it does serve as a re header to practitioners about the basic processes involved in communications and in PR. Its also the basis for mixer scientist and guru on propaganda Harold Lasswells explanation of communications as beingWho says What to Whom in What Channel with What EffectShannon and Weaver argued that at that place are three problems when thinking about communicationsThe technical problem how accurately crowd out the message be transmitted?The semantic problem how precisely is the meaning conveyed?The effectiveness problem how effectively does the au thentic meaning affect behaviour?They assumed that sorting out the technical problems would thumpingly solve the semantic and effectiveness problems (and that really is simplistic).You peck see that there are a few problems with this model. I t is linear and unidirectional there is no needment with the receiver. The sender is called the information source it is not a complex sender. The receiver appears to be a passive and accepting, a simple and entrusting absorber of information, awkwardly a critical transcriber of what he or she is exposed to. There is no agency to assess whether the receiver has accurately picked up the message and then believed it or acted upon it. There is no consideration of the context of meaning (is this teacher to parent, politician to floating taker?). Nor to when in ground of time the communication takes place. But then again this theory was devised by and for telecommunications engineers. Consequently this simple model stomachnot reflect the complex psychology of the human being or the physiology of the human brain. Nor does it appease the existing relationships between sender and receiver, or the infinite ways a message can be encoded in terms of words and pictures. Also it does not allow for the unique characteristics of the octuple bring that could be use d to get the message across and that affect how a message exit be seen and interpreted.So theor y one is a useful start point.Theory two James Carey transportation/communications linkshttp//wyolife.com/Thank%20US/morse%20 electrify.jpgInvention and technology have a huge part to play in the development of corporate communications. James Carey was an American academic and journalism specialist. In his book Communication As Culture (1989) Carey discussed the development of the telegraph and its understated role in future developments in communication. The non-electric telegraph was invented by Claude Chappe in 1794 and was a visual system apply semaphore, a flag-based alphabet, and depending on a line of sight for communication. The optical telegraph was subsequently replaced by the electric telegraph, the purpose of Samuel Morse. Morse proved that signals could be transmitted by wire and, to facilitate this developed the Morse Code. The bulge outning(a) gear news dispatched by electric telegraph was in May 1844. The death knell for the electric telegraph came with the invention of the telephone in 1877.So before the nineteenth century the meltment of information was to a greater extent or less(prenominal) the same as the transport of goods or hoi polloi and both were described as communication. Before the telegraph (and the telephone) most decisions particularly profession and political decisions were made plaque to face. Carey argued that the telegraph permitted for the first time the effective separation of communication from transportation. So after the telegraph, as soon as messages could fail faster than the people, horses or trains that delivered them, ein truththing changed, in terms of how humans communicated across distances and over time. Geography became irrelevant, enabling communities to move away from the local, towards the national, and interna tional or global. The telegraph allowed people from one side of the world to communicate well-nigh instantaneously with someone on the other side of the world.How quaint this seems in todays digital world but this helps us look at the origins of modern communication. Because this shows to some extent where plain English came from. The short drawing telegraph demanded a prose style that Carey noted was more lean and unadorned. Think of a tweet. So all those years ago it was the simple old telegraph that first called for the plainest of writing and, as a knock-on effect, changed the way news was written. At the same time style became more objective because these words would be read by individuals of legion(predicate) different beliefs and opinions, from many different communities, regions and countries.Technological advances continue to have a huge impact on how we practice communications on what messages work, on how we encode our message, on what channels to use so that the recei ver sees and assays it accurately and so on. The meaning of the message comes from the process listeners, readers and/or viewers go with when they sterilise sense of what they see, hear and feel. Meaning is not extracted from but constructed by the message. Its lite that, while we dont need to be technician, everyone working in the field of communications must keep au courant of developments in technology because you can bet your bottom dollar they will have an impact of professional communications practice.Theory Three Grunig and Hunts Four Models for Public RelationsManaging Public Relations written by Grunig and Hunt (1984) spiritedlighted four models for how organizations can chose to practice public relations. The four models developed more or less chronologically through the twentieth century. This is the most often cited theory of public relations and these theories are so far relevant, taught as part of graduate, post-graduate and vocational qualifications across the UK and overseas.The Four ModelsPress agent model one way communication where an organization tells an hearing what it motivations it to believe. little or no look to determine audiences needs interests or inclinations to agree with the organisations objectives. This is the simple, original, historic model for PR with the focus on stick favourable coverage (ie publicity) for your organization, cause, celebrity, label via the media.One -way transfer of informationNo feedbackLittle or no enquiryInformation is not always accurateall publicity is good publicityPublic information model a journalists approach to public relations, put ups truthful accurate information about an organisation leaving our damaging or harmful information. This model developed pretty much as a reaction to attacks on large corporations and government agencies by investigative journalists. The leaders of these institutions needed more than simple propaganda peddled by nip agents to forebode the attacks on them in the media. So they hired their witness journalists to act as public relations practitioners, and press handouts were written and distributed to give their point of view and explain actions. This is also the model where essential information is provided to the people and ruling or attitude change is not essential. Examples might be letting people come about the weather, about road traffic, or internally about new appointments and soon. The approach is very much lets get the facts out.One way transfer of informationSome evaluation on effectivenessLittle or no research about the audience(s) rehearsed most often by government straightforward and accurateTwo-way crooked model emphasises a change in attitudes or behaviours in the audience only in accordance with the objectives and goals of the organisation. Persuasive communication really has its origins here. In 1917 during World War 1 US President Woodrow Wilson set up The Creel charge (AKA CPI Committee on Public Inf ormation). Committee members included the so-called founder of modern public relations practice, social scientist Edward Bernays. Communications took a more scientific approach that made the practice two-way with practitioners both seeking information from and giving information to publics. Theories introduced by Bernays were those of propaganda, persuasion, and the engineering of consent. This model is cl earlyish at work when attempts are made to regularize publics to borrow a preferred point of view or behaviour. Research provides input into the process (for example research into why people steal a new car help manufacturers create motivating relevant messages).Scientific persuasionTwo-way transfer of informationResearch done to persuade audience(s)Messages created to persuadeModel slanted in favour of organizationThe two-way symmetrical model uses research to better understand the audience and to resolve disputes. Each party the sender and receiver is willing to alter mess ages and even behaviours to accommodate the others needs. The two-way symmetrical model puddles use of research and other forms of two-way communication. Un handle the two-way asymmetrical model, however, it uses research to facilitate sagaciousness and communication rather than to identify messages most likely to motivate or persuade publics. A good example might be management and workforce in a consultation process enabling a change of policies and practices resulting in higher point of intersectionivity and better establish and conditions. This model includes views and principles like telling the truth, interpreting the client and public to one another and management understanding the viewpoints of employees and neighbours as well as employees and neighbours understanding the viewpoints of management. It is perhaps a communications ideal as many organisations are unwilling to go all the way and engage so fully with audiences as they bid to retain the concept of control. It could be argued that modern technology and digital communications is forcing even the most loath organisation to have to consider this model seriously to maintain a competitive or an honourable position that enhances reputation.Behaviour change on both sidesResearch done to understand, not manipulate, the audienceStrategies include consultation, bargaining, negotiation , discussion, compromiseBest model of communication?http//tidforlivet.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/tabell.pnghttp//1.bp.blogspot.com/_VuLFUx-Yubs/SfoclSt7X5I/AAAAAAAABTY/rMGGoNZtpa8/s400/Ethical_Influence.pnghttp//www.derekchristensen.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/cialdini-influence-chart.pngTheory Four Robert Cialdini and InfluenceArguably one of the profound tasks of corporate communications is to influence others to comply with what you want which may be to understand an issue, engage in debate, prefer or like or support your point of view, or behave a different way.Robert Cialdini, Regents Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University has made influence his lifes work. Having observed extensively how influence works by studying compliance professionals (people skilled in getting others to do what they want them to do salespeople, fundraisers, recruiters, advertisers and so on) he published, in 1984, Influence The Psychology of Persuasion. I was minded(p) this book when I worked in the advertising industry and I go back to these ideas time and time again.Cialdini arrived at what he called his six weapons of influence and we can see these six principles at work in many successful PR and communications programmes. But do take care influence in the wrong hands becomes manipulation. There are many examples when this thinking has been used for evil ends. Use these strategies for good, not to persuade people to do things that are wrong. Examine your conscience and apply this thinking ethically1. reciprocityPeople generally start to come down a compliment. Th ey invite people to come to dinner having been invited themselves they give in back debts they treat others as they are treated. Its youmeyoume. This leads us to feel obliged to offer concessions or discounts to others if they have offered them to us first because we feel uncomfortable if we feel indebted to them. For example youll giving money to a fundraiser who has given you a little badge or sticker a free tasting of a new food product in-store may make you deal a pack you might descend to buy more from a supplier if they have offered you preferential terms first. You can sometimes use this principle by simply reminding the other psyche of how you have helped them in the past. Key thing is to give a service, information or a concession. Your channelise will then be primed to return the favour. To use reciprocity ethically to influence others, identify objectives, and consider what you want the target to do. You can then identify what you can give to them in return.2. Commit ment and ConsistencyOnce weve committed to something, were then more inclined to go through with it because, says Cialdini, we human beings have an innate desire to be consistent.For example people who sign a petition supporting a new community facility are more likely to donate money to that cause when asked later. Get peoples commitment early on, either verbally or in writing. For example, if the communications programme is building support for the building of a new supermarket, communicate early on with stakeholders, and take their comments and views into account.3. Social ProofThis principle relies on peoples sense of safety in poesy because people tend to follow convertible others. For example, were more likely put some money into a dish for staff tips if theres money already in that dish, well buy a product if carve up of others have done so and provide testimonials that its good and and were more likely to support a constitution if support seems high already. The assumpti on is that if lots of other people are doing something, then it must be OK, safe to do, good, right to do too. Were more likely to be influenced if we feel uncertain and, another key factor, is whether those people already behaving a certain way are like us in terms of lifetsage and lifestyle. Internally you could use social proof when trying to get support for a new confuse by getting the support from influential people in your organisation whose opinions others respect. And if you are exchange a product, say how many people use it and get them to recommend it on social networking sites.4 zestWere more likely to be influenced by people we like. And people are more likely to buy from people like themselves, from friends, and from people they know and respect. Likability comes in many forms people might be similar or familiar to us, they might give us compliments, or we may just simply self-confidence them.. Put in the time and effort needed to build trust and rapport with clien ts and people you work with, and behave with consistency. Develop your emptional intelligence together with active listening skils. But dont try too hard to be liked by others people can always spot a phoney. Companies that use sales agents from within the community employ the liking principle extensively and with huge success.5. AuthorityWe feel a sense of duty or obligation to people in positions of authority. This is why advertisers of pharmaceutical products employ doctors to expect their fight downs, and why most of us will do most things that our manager requests.Job titles, uniforms, and even accessories like cars or gadgets can lend an air of authority, and can persuade us to accept what these people say.6. scarcityThis principle says that things are more attractive when their availability is limited, or when we stand to lose the opportunity to acquire them on favorable terms.For instance, we might buy something immediately if were told that its the last one, or that a sp ecial offer will soon expire.AuthorityHere you can use both your own authority, and the authority of others, as influencers.When you use your own authority, be careful not to use it negatively. Our article onFrench and Ravens Five Forms of Power has more on different sources of power, and explains how you can use power and authority positively.To use authority, get support from influential and powerful people, and ask for their help in backing the idea. (Use Influence Maps to help you network with people who can help.)If youre marketing a product or service, highlight well-known and respected customers, use comments from industry gifteds, and chew out about impressive research or statistics.Things like well-produced brochures, professional presentations, impressive offices, and smart clothing can also lend authority.ScarcityWith this principle, people need to know that theyre missing out if they dont act quickly.If youre selling a product, limit the availability of stock, set a c losing date for the offer, or create special editions of products.This principle can be trickier to apply within your organization if youre trying to influence others to support your ideas or projects. You can, however, use urgency to get support for your ideas. For example, you can highlight the possible urgent consequences of the problem that your idea helps to solve.http//www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.pngTipRemember that these are just six ways that you can influence others. Use these principles alongside other tools such as the Rhetorical Triangle, Monroes Motivated Sequence, Win-Win Negotiation, the Persuasion Tools Model, and the Minority Influence Strategy.You can also use Stakeholder Analysis and Management to build support for your ideas and projects.http//www.mindtools.com/images/box/bottom460grey.pngResisting InfluenceYou can also use this tool when others are trying to influence you.In these situations, bear the following points in mindBefore accepting a free g ift or a discounted service, or before agreeing to hear confidential information, ask yourself whether youre going to feel obliged to give the same or more in return. Should you decline, so that you dont feel indebted?Before agreeing to a course of action, even at a very preliminary level, think about the consequences of your decision. Will you feel so invested in this new course of action that you wont want to change your mind?Though everyone else is pursuing a particular route or buying a product, it may not be right for you. Avoid falling victim to the crowd together mentality. You might decide that its best to go against the trend.When you feel tempted to buy a product or sign up for a service, ask yourself whether youve fallen under the spell of a particularly likable sales representative. Is the salesperson similar to you, familiar to you, or extremely complimentary?Carefully note your reaction to authority figures. Has the person youre negotiating with triggered your respec t for authority? Are you making your choice because you want to, or are you swayed by an expert opinion? And does this person genuinely have the authority he is implying, or is he merely using the symbols of that authority?Before you fall for a sales pitch claiming that a product is running out of stock or that a discount deal is soon to expire, think again. Do you really want or need the product now, or has its neediness of availability caught your help?http//www.mindtools.com/images/box/top460grey.pngKey PointsThe sextette Principles of Influence were created by Robert Cialdini, and published in his 1984 book, Influence The Psychology of Persuasion.The principles are reciprocity, commitment, social proof, liking, authority, and scarcity.You can use the six principles whenever you want to influence or persuade others. However, its also useful to use them with other tools. And, by knowing about the principles, you can become resistant to people who try to use them to manipulate yo u.You also need to make sure that you dont misuse these principles avoid using them to deceive or mislead people, and make sure that you use them for peoples good, rather than to disadvantage them.Theory Five Patrick Jackson and others the people change plyPatrick Jackson was a public relations practitioner working in the US he and others considered the steps communicators has to go though in order to effect behaviour changeBuild awareness eg publicity, advertising, face to face communicationsDevelop a latent readiness an inclination to make change during which opinions begin to formTrigger a desire to change via a natural or planned characterUtilise an intermediate behaviour during which an individual begins to investigate new behavioursChanging behaviours and adopting the new behaviourTheory Six Mendelsohns Three Assumptions for Success Mendelsohn (1973) believed causes often failed because campaign designers overpromised, assumed the public would automatically receive and sky-high accept their messages, and blanketed the public with messages not properly targeted and likely to be ignored or misinterpreted. His Three Assumptions are still a touchstone for communications planning1.Target your messages2. Assume your target public is un provoke in your messages.3. Set reasonable, midrange goals and objectives.Theory Seven Hierarchy of effects theory of persuasionThis is a sequential mental representation of how advertising in particular influences a consumers decision to purchase or not a product or service. The hierarchy-of-effects theory is used to set up a structured series of message objectives with the aim of building on each successive step until the sale is achieved. Although this model is often used to plan advertising campaign it is a useful one to look at in relation to PR campaigns as often these too require a stepped approach. This thinking informs AMECs communications objectives funnel (see section on measurement and evaluation) sta ndard 1 Exposure. Some PR programmes get no further than this just pose the message out. But just placing a message in an environment cannot guarantee it is seen or acknowledged. clapperclaw 2 Attention Even paid-for placed advertising will fail if the audience is not pay attention. A PR message must be capable of attracting attention and cutting through the noise of daily life. Complex messages have to capture even higher levels of attention, especially with attention spans diminishing as they are. Creativity, presentation and encoding are key elements at this stage. Carefully selected culturally specific and acceptable multi-sensory PR and communications techniques, using symbols, colours and music, are used to grab peoples attention and wake them up.Some aspects of attention are controlled by the potential receiver and some are involuntary responses to sensory cues. A sharp noise, for example, can get someones attention (essentially a human response mechanism to ensure quick responses to danger.) conversely something amusing will draw attention because the receiver enjoys seeing it. Advertising practitioners may use physiologic triggers like fast cut video to get and retain attention. But this is exhausting process requiring high levels of mental processing. So sometimes even though attention is gained, the desired message is lost in term sof being able to remember wht that was all about. measuring rod 3 Involvement/Engagement Although research indicates people pay attention to sudden changes in sounds or visual effects, its true too that they dispense with paying attention if a message seems irrelevant, uninteresting, or distasteful. Messages that are relevant keep people interested and make them primed to absorb the information. This is essentially saying that communications needs to answer the question Whats in it for me? Once that is demonstrated, techniques like storytelling, examples and case histories and the use of novel content keeps the rec eiver engaged and interested.Step 4 Comprehension Keeping the receivers attention does not ensure he or she will understand the message.Step 5 Skill acquisition (learning how). Well-intentioned people may be unable to follow through on an idea if they lack the skills to do so. Potential voters without transportation to the polls will not vote intended nonsmokers will not quit smoking without social support interested restaurant patrons will not come if they cannot afford it parents interested in a civic betterment program will not attend a meeting if they do not have child care. An effective campaign anticipates the target publics needs to provide the help they require. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), for example, found, through a Burke Marketing survey, that many people had a passive attitude about fire, many believed they had much more time to escape than they really do, and only 16% had developed and practiced a space fire escape plan. As a result, NFPAs 1998 Fi re Safety Week promotion focused on teaching students about fire escape planning and practice, with incentives to encourage them to participate in a authenticated practice drill with their families. Although the Silver Anvil Award-winning campaign generated an enormous amount of publicity, the most outstanding result was that at least 25 lives were saved as a direct result of the families booking in the promotion.Step6 Persuasion (attitude change). Although McGuire listed this step following skills acquisition, attitude change often precedes skill development. People who lack the skills to follow through on an idea may tune out the details, figuring it is not relevant for them. Attitude change is another of the necessary but often insufficient steps in the persuasion process. Sometimes, however, attitude change is all that is necessary, particularly if the goal of a campaign is to increase a publics atonement with an organization in order to avoid negative consequences such as l awsuits, strikes, or boycotts. Usually, however, a campaign has an outcome behavior in mind. In that case, remember that people often have attitudes inconsistent with their behaviors. galore(postnominal) smokers believe smoking is a bad thing but still smoke. Many nonvoters say choose is important and they intend to vote, but they still fail to show up on election day.Step 7 Storing the new position in memory emory storage. This step is important because people receive triple messages from multiple sources all day, every day. For them to act on your message, they need to remember it when the appropriate time comes to buy a ticket, make a telephone call, fill out a form, or attend an situation. They need to be able to store the important information about your message in their memory, which may not be easy if other messages received simultaneously demand their attention. Key elements of messages, therefore, need to be communicated in ways that make them stand out for easy memoriz ation.Step 8. Information retrieval. Simply storing information does not ensure that it will be retrieved at the appropriate time. People might remember your special feature on the correct day but forget the location. Reminders or memory devices such as slogans, jingles, and icebox magnets can help.Step 9. Motivation (decision). This is an important step that many campaign designers forget in their own enthusiasm for their campaign goals.Remember Mendelsohns (1973) admonition that people may not be interested in the campaign? They need reasons to follow through. The benefits need to outweigh the costs. In addition, the benefits must seem realistic and should be substantially obtained. The more effort required on the part of the message recipients the less likely it is that they will make that effort. If the message recipients believe a proposed behavior is easy, will have major personal benefits, or is critically important, they are more likely to act. The challenge for the progr am planner is to discover what will motivate the target audience successfully, an issue addressed later in this chapter. Elgin DDB of Seattle, when asked to help reduce Puget Sound curbside disposal of poop clippings by 5%, realized motivation would be an important focus. Focus groups and phone surveys indicated that the target group, antheral homeowners aged 25 to 65, had an interest in git-cycling but needed the proper tools to make it easy and practical. As a result, they arranged to recycle consumers old polluting gas mowers for free at a special event and sell Torro and Ryobi mulch mowers at below the normal retail price, with an additional rebate. With a goal of selling 3,000 mowers, they sold 5,000. They hoped to remove 1,500 gas mowers from the market and ended up recycling approximately 2,600. And, as for their original goal of reducing curbside disposal of grass clippings by 5%? They more than tripled the target amount, reducing grass clippings by 17%, winning a 1999 Si lver Anvil Award.10. Behavior. Success often is measured in terms of behaviors such as sales or attendance figures. Marketing experts, however, know that getting someones business once does not guarantee long-term success. One study (Building Customer, 1996) found that keeping customers loyal can boost profits up to 80%. As a result, the program planner needs to do everything possible to ensure that behavior attempts